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contents. C* R6 p- i- h4 O7 @; V/ H
5 | [8 d+ W: x, Q1 Introduction ................................. 1
9 i) {$ v. I8 j! U$ rWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
% L# R% j+ D/ I h: C; H8 Y: n- SWho Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
r5 L- x k3 DThe General Format of This Book ............... 2 j$ X9 u8 q: h- O+ u2 l
Why Measure .......................... 3
5 f$ w/ O5 n( x; OObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
1 R/ `& T( U6 P! q' p) K+ j/ UDesign, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
e! A1 a. x, _" L3 p$ lTroubleshooting ........................ 5
k' C$ C. m7 c/ ?Validation or Verification ................. 7
. i3 e/ N: C4 A, @Terminology ........................... 7
' s+ u( i$ X) ~4 i( l 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11
7 w9 q$ Z7 e" y5 V* a) eCause No Damage ............................ 11( A9 w* S# _. ~4 V& m8 t
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11, d% w3 h1 L' r+ h n
Validate the Test Setup and + Y& v/ F; \# T" d
Measurement Limits ........................ 12
0 [; a, ?' {( `- }8 sMeasure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14! l+ P/ k, S) Z# q3 P* v" S/ \2 L: m
Noninvasive versus Invasive 1 t& H1 O K, A* B3 \# D
Measurement ........................ 14
: c7 j- @8 ~" ?8 rIn situ Measurement .................... 145 B! u- k2 x, C1 x6 F6 D: r4 w
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14
1 ?$ `( G. p3 C( v. Y* s4 FDocument Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
& ], _+ C' l2 U' m# _The Test Engineer and Contact
- ?+ X6 e8 i3 ]2 b& o! YInformation .......................... 15
7 o5 |' ^- S; R! N1 T5 u& EThe Purpose of the Test .................. 16
! g; ^ p: ]3 X& ySimulated or Expected Results if - J* L1 U7 s6 o0 ], g9 D3 V
Available ............................ 17
+ Y+ c( s8 ?3 `5 q% Y$ lThe Date and Physical Location
0 o! T- A% [5 m! {, Kof the Testing ........................ 181 \9 }3 l9 g, ?/ T, P: s8 |2 x
Operational Test Environment
$ d |$ h3 U k W7 X' aand Conditions ....................... 18
3 y- s" Z1 J2 \The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 6 m6 z- t4 ~4 [6 M
(Including Probes) and Verification That + z/ V" d6 |" A! |6 N" U
They Are Calibrated .................. 18# |$ ?/ v+ ~& W" K
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 19
. v4 l9 Y- Q" n; b a IMeasurement Annotations and
% G* s6 S# r# ^* c: w' B# c, ]Comments .......................... 20+ R& _4 n' i+ N
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 204 E+ q9 a: d, p. h& i, x0 K
9 V# }, f! W6 \" | V( U3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21
, K: U( e2 O& d$ o$ W4 C: ySensitivity ................................... 21( R" M3 k* ?. g. F9 N' N1 m6 M
Noise Floor .................................. 22
0 i" f, j C$ }( h$ I6 ]Dynamic Range .............................. 22
. M: D [4 t2 F- p4 C0 S- G" RNoise Density ................................ 27
" d& q. B% t0 D& w* r2 {/ vSignal Averaging ............................. 316 @: _# U8 q0 Q' m5 I
Scaling ...................................... 33
3 {2 Q' F+ u0 T+ [Attenuators .................................. 34
_. h5 U) y4 C" G4 r" i% j \: XPreamplifiers ................................. 350 F, _* y" b" o! V+ j
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
~" ^+ {" r5 EMeasurement Domains ........................ 386 o" h6 `9 N& L1 o
Frequency Domain ...................... 38
/ C2 B3 |4 p* \% IGain and Phase ......................... 38
% [' B- z. o6 z6 d- pS-Parameters ........................... 38
O% L7 y. P. O$ U9 u; o& jImpedance ............................. 39
9 p: P4 e+ b0 I* YTime Domain ........................... 409 O$ V7 k$ d5 Q' I8 g
Spectrum Domain ....................... 42
( ], c9 ]& g v' d4 XComparing Domains .................... 44
( Q, C" ~: G" ^* Q. W1 hEndnotes .................................... 46
9 V* v& @5 r( Q5 ]4 l 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47
5 @: q9 Y$ R W/ T gFrequency Response Analyzers and Vector
( w6 S2 z L N& j b" uNetwork Analyzers ......................... 47; H. A+ G3 l: {) G q2 D# s; `
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 494 m! O7 I, E% R, y% b/ Y3 O) S
Agilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50! X' J) h" b' U4 X5 B9 x' f2 |; s
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50' d/ e# v+ O; h1 g0 n+ t7 q
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
# X R+ h) h; X; T- Y- F( u, bRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52) b+ t2 Y$ P: Z
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53: k( v5 e/ E% ]) I- ^
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
% w% e/ _' d+ n) gTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 55
# h+ I4 V& c) [3 e ~Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
& w X# s& d+ _# F T3 c/ ^; wTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
Z( q# S$ q% A3 GTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58: z. g9 a f( m0 G( q5 s
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
4 I: r& Z& N+ K6 Q: x8 uSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
; {" z3 b+ F& n/ eTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59
+ ^5 r. \( n) W: CAgilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
$ u8 U: e+ ~' p" r' Z4 @; | g0 KAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
+ }. u# N. o0 h# b; k+ _Signal Generators ............................. 62 m, h- H" ?9 c$ d% \
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
7 u6 s, ]0 j1 | X: P+ w: Q* yTDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
6 K. W1 ]4 U- z6 zPicotest G5100A ........................ 633 f0 }5 l% F x3 p8 [5 \# j0 @2 P
2 f) T5 R1 v& d& z) d
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
: J8 B6 G9 k2 ~Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 655 j% [4 C8 s( w, Y; B$ |
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66; {+ X% L, `# \" ~' K0 x& [
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 69
. o) B7 G1 V- c8 EVoltage Probes ................................ 69
/ T; Y% H8 e$ h; ^* sProbe Circuit Interaction ................. 70. A- e# i8 J: h: n n2 u1 u. j
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72
) U2 r) L# L. n6 A& @' Q+ l- cConfirming Measurements ............... 74- y0 o% ] n, o5 J5 N+ `( w
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75- x7 T7 B# a- b5 V
Passive Probes .......................... 771 b/ g1 M: [) }- g6 I" R
Active Probes .......................... 79
) [. ~+ x K: qDifferential Probes ...................... 79: G2 {, e8 m! X! `# @2 v) B
Specialty Probes ........................ 800 R0 a2 N( H& E
Other Connections ...................... 916 y+ g, O% f* t6 y
Endnotes .................................... 91, |% E% S; y4 `, u/ H' r
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93# I4 u$ j9 N3 [' J: P
Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
5 F; l7 A& |& o. B$ G( p( _Internal Noise .......................... 95
- p: f- @* V, mPower Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
8 G: C( D7 D5 n- l! E( t2 [& V9 hOutput Impedance ...................... 99
$ {$ j/ R+ F& Z @Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99/ V8 }) {2 O2 y: U4 y
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
. N" m+ p1 P+ S0 ]3 T: W* i7 i4 A+ T oImpact on Output Impedance ............ 1019 L' Z, J1 J! s# R+ }
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
' [: F8 M0 A- w2 S8 ?Impact on PSRR ........................ 102
) v& R- p" {& k1 SImpact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103* ^2 R) l. D# _- T: ~% ]: x# X
How Poor Stability Propagates through
8 [5 _4 c1 ?9 T, z5 Athe System ................................. 103
) H3 J# p- P" P9 d, P4 a$ O, PAdding the PDNs ....................... 106
9 y$ i' a6 S! Q$ HEndnotes .................................... 108
- \$ d# z0 J4 I2 u 7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
4 \+ _7 G# a" v: `0 W; B7 fSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109" a7 {7 J. E' l8 i2 r' a2 S
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109
+ K9 q, Z/ M7 I( y5 HTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123! v8 z) f6 P6 s H8 d, y$ p
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139
' A2 s! i4 ^3 q; tImpedance Adapters .................... 142( a4 q2 V/ ]. C* B5 i! z& ?) `
Endnotes .................................... 148
* D# C3 V( S( c5 D4 }9 } 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151; P4 Q2 ]+ j: [4 G* u2 j5 l$ A
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 1518 @3 r# H L. w K; ^
Control Loop Basics ..................... 151
2 c- ^& ~4 ^4 e2 ~0 K- j8 A$ TGain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
, _- J+ @/ A' SMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153+ Y5 |9 u& Q4 R+ Z
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154$ T* r( I+ B& t5 o' T
x
- d v2 ?' S# _- {$ N Contents
: ?- q/ V% y5 {& h) LOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159
& w6 {( S, g9 m# a) l6 HInjection Devices ........................ 161
+ P* E. {. D( [% s' e PSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164- [9 Z" y2 R5 s! T; E; }
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
6 Z4 s5 `, P$ t) \* o6 CON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
" A: z" f2 s9 R8 u6 |6 gForward Measurements .................. 171
- G; b5 `6 v) `8 ^Minor Loop Gain ....................... 171
' x8 n7 T$ z3 M6 u2 }Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
5 T$ t& P9 K+ L2 s; @Endnotes .................................... 179
$ x+ I, K8 W3 X' o a
+ G7 K O, E* z A9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181. b7 R$ S' x# `5 p7 v4 s
Measurement Methods ........................ 182
* t# h( W A+ ~4 S9 N1 }9 [In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
. J1 }9 m% U) g3 WDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 182+ Y! H. u# O4 l' ?+ U9 O
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
, ~- l1 t$ k7 dLine Injector ............................ 184
2 U4 W. e: K8 k B' P. O3 J! s$ gCurrent Injector ......................... 188
" L S0 q1 J1 X, v! eDC Amplifier ........................... 1896 d: N2 t: u- k. t7 Q; |3 |
Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189' v; m; K5 c4 j f+ i
VNA .................................. 189" @8 l3 g; c1 s% z" i
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
7 F/ f3 q2 x- ]* HOscilloscope ............................ 190* V3 M4 G' m; a/ @! N* t; x2 n
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 190
" Q8 Y: n- b8 L8 f) `9 S/ ?Endnotes .................................... 2008 [4 T) D/ |& L
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201* |. q" L9 h6 ~9 `0 w7 b2 C) i
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201" T) \% ?% I% B" m& F1 D+ i
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201 ]6 F% T+ T! r! l$ @4 o
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201" |3 F# S* j' o/ x. J
POL Regulators ......................... 203) u" [8 U$ _0 c* h5 P5 J. P
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
! Z/ S( N$ o/ D2 l1 E, n# ^Modulating the Output Current ................ 204* e+ b2 h5 [+ B& A* z x
Current Injector ......................... 205
3 u6 n1 _) w3 L/ h. E$ C* \DC Bias Injector ........................ 205 u/ j. n. H& _1 P( k& z
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205! g1 F! s4 ?8 p5 I- G
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205* [- a/ {+ r/ M8 B2 [4 k- t
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
3 V8 [6 _9 N: y& r" q- `% mCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209- j! M: R$ ]5 |/ M& h# O
Indirect Measurement ......................... 2098 |! M( r7 l6 J9 @9 ^/ R
Endnotes .................................... 216) q9 {8 @; b: g/ N: X
11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217" y5 U& \: V! A/ x
Generating the Transient ....................... 217- D/ ?, Q5 \! ^3 X+ P: G
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 2172 U& `) G7 N2 Q- k5 q4 e
Slew Rate .............................. 219$ ]" u# V0 @, @$ W8 ?5 o3 j) e
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221/ d0 U5 i' y9 H1 T" b7 [* Z* |5 l
Contents 3 Y9 i+ A) K) u# _! B6 o
xi
% N) t1 U' n' Y( W5 `2 c: k' BMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223# y1 A+ r, @: V
Large Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223
4 v( ]$ Q* E; f6 {" h( f6 fNotes about Averaging .................. 224
' r/ I; [/ J# X3 u6 N4 V" FSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
+ f" y5 y6 R( e. d4 `0 v1 hEndnotes .................................... 232
$ O2 B' }% ^0 J: P& k3 O7 X1 t. R 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233 q( [2 h4 y+ t& [; e& d
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234* u( _2 i. j3 B- ]! o
In or Out of System ..................... 234# W( i3 a2 w8 Z D2 ~' D( X$ B( K3 L
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
7 w9 L* j$ _" Q) t( F% U, UTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234* H. v% d9 y1 n3 p7 m3 t
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235
& c0 X+ R+ ^0 e9 G cPassive Scope Probes .................... 235
9 @' a- D3 V0 A4 s2 O0 k, WActive Scope Probes ..................... 236
. n1 t1 d( F# | y3 M0 dDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236: O% s8 ], X6 H0 R: o" t: E C4 B. H8 u* L
Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
+ V0 t6 p6 a# {. x \/ H- N2 J$ RAveraging and Filtering ....................... 252% p& r1 T3 X: G* i' E
Endnotes .................................... 2529 _ q0 U; Z6 a @/ m/ ^
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 2532 M7 l/ _* g2 y& @) @& A
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253. Z# t& ^: _) y' U3 e, A( y- d1 L% a# \
Cascading Rise Times ................... 2568 l* p( a' C% G! Z$ P
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth 9 u! |% z- R% x8 l
Limiting ............................. 257
$ O. s3 m( H( G4 G* z$ t$ BSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
" o5 x: J; E3 ^Interpolation ................................. 264$ K* _9 E5 r3 x- g5 l) d! B1 B
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2659 W, Z' o; @% y8 c7 p% ~; E1 U& @
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265! e* v3 M1 [ A& a8 k* p- _. \
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267
3 Q( c9 E. ?' cPrinted Circuit Board Issues ................... 269
0 l% |' ]6 p* }7 u. @+ h3 QProbes ....................................... 2695 s0 `' Z2 E* S1 J; ?% q9 B
Endnotes .................................... 273" I# z- K5 G; _8 U# C: d' T
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275% Y6 F! N- ]9 o: ~4 r5 h* j! R
The Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
! n# r% i Z" L) X3 t7 BThe Near-Field Probes ......................... 277* U- ^; v$ w8 l5 y% G. o
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
2 Y \) g+ q' Q GThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281/ |. N# G' n8 A) y/ J
Spectrum Gating .............................. 281# l% w. R6 ~5 Q6 x
Endnotes .................................... 295
) G* Y: {: y" _ s# \ 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
5 I8 p" }0 m: {. F- wTime Domain ................................. 297
, N( z+ u$ w) J5 m5 Z7 ]Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298( }, \3 Y# i( }0 Y ?
Calibration ................................... 299( s2 r1 Q, t$ \; g" C
Reference Plane ............................... 300; i; O: i1 P9 y* Q1 O0 r
xii: A o+ X$ B4 p3 a9 U8 g2 M
Contents7 ?+ K9 R* h! U# {( |6 ?) o
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303
# ]0 |- f, V3 Q( s7 tInterpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304
9 h# K$ M6 e( P7 EEstimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307
% O& L9 o& H! x' Y9 XS-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
. C! c6 o8 H6 Y+ Z- v6 Q1 |Endnotes .................................... 316
) m/ D! B3 H5 L2 _7 m Index ....................................... 319 |
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